The term
black was used throughout but not frequently as it carried a certain stigma. In his 1963 "
I Have a Dream" speech,
[37] Martin Luther King, Jr. uses the terms
Negro 15 times and
black 4 times. Each time he uses
black it is in parallel construction with
white (e.g., black men and white men).
[38] With the successes of the
civil rights movement a new term was needed to break from the past and help shed the reminders of legalized discrimination. In place of
Negro,
black was promoted as standing for racial pride, militancy and power. Some of the turning points included the use of the term "
Black Power" by Kwame Toure (
Stokely Carmichael) and the release of James Brown's song "
Say It Loud - I'm Black and I'm Proud".
In 1988
Jesse Jackson urged Americans to use the term
African American because the term has a historical cultural base. Since then African American and black have essentially a coequal status. There is still much controversy over which term is more appropriate. Some strongly reject the term African American in preference for black citing that they have little connection with Africa.[
who?] Others believe the term black is inaccurate because African Americans have a variety of skin tones.
[39][
not in citation given] Surveys show that when interacting with each other African Americans prefer the term black, as it is associated with intimacy and familiarity. The term "African American" is preferred for public and formal use.
[40] The appropriateness of the term "African American" is further confused, however, by increases in black immigrants from
Africa, the Caribbean and Latin America. The more recent black immigrants may sometimes view themselves, and be viewed, as culturally distinct from native descendants of African slaves.
[41]
The
U.S. census race definitions says a black is a person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa. It includes people who indicate their race as "Black, African Am., or Negro," or who provide written entries such as African American, Afro American,
Kenyan,
Nigerian, or
Haitian. However, the
Census Bureau notes that these classifications are socio-political constructs and should not be interpreted as scientific or anthropological.
[42]
A considerable portion of the
U.S. population identified as
black actually have some
Native American or
European American ancestry. For instance, genetic studies of African American people show an ancestry that is on average 17-18% European